Valproic acid

Sodium valproate is also a weak inhibitor of GSK-3β. Valproic acid increases activator protein 1 (AP-1) binding to DNA, but only at much higher concentrations than lithium. The direct mechanism of how valproic acid works is similar to how lithium works. At high concentrations, valproate can inhibit GSK-3β, and therefore activate SP-1 induced gene expression. However, there is some debate as to whether clinical levels of valproate directly inhibits GSK-3β. Clinically, It may be that Valproic acid inhibits GSK-3β by some indirect mechanism.

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